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Space Infrastructure for a Sustainable Arctic: Opportunities and Challenges of Spaceport Development in the High North

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May 31, 2022
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Launch of rocket from ESRANGE space center in Kiruna, Sweden, surrounded by trees

ESRANGE space center in Kiruna, Sweden, launches stratospheric balloons and sounding rockets for research in outer space and will expand to launch small satellites to low Earth orbit from 2022. Photo: DLR Picture

Infrastructure is a critical way for humans to engage with the natural environment in the Arctic region, as it facilitates access, connection, inhabitation, and productivity. The Arctic Institute’s 2022 series on Infrastructure in the Arctic investigates infrastructure as a critical point of analysis for considering human impacts and needs in the Arctic, especially in its role as a mediator, or as an interface, between politics, government, people and the natural environment.​

The Arctic Institute Infrastructure Series 2022

Satellite-based communication systems are indispensable for Arctic coastal states, as they facilitate management and surveillance of vast maritime areas under their jurisdiction in the Arctic. Small satellites enable such important services as data transmission for Internet and other applications to any point on Earth. Polar orbiting satellites are particularly useful for mapping or surveillance missions in the Arctic because they allow a satellite to pass over the entire surface of the planet as the Earth rotates beneath their orbital path.1) As polar satellites’ orbits converge at the poles, they provide more coverage at the Northern latitudes than they do closer to the equator.2)

Small and micro-satellite launch market is in rapid development, with multiple commercial actors competing for the supply of satellite-based services from low-Earth orbits.3) Elon Musk’s Starlink constellation with thousands of small satellites in near-Earth orbit is one of the early birds in this rapidly growing market.4)

Supply of satellite-based services is conditional on the availability of space infrastructure, including launch facilities. European demand for space launch services has so far been covered by spaceports located overseas such as Guiana Space Centre (Kourou, French Guiana), in Russia (Plesetsk) and Kazakhstan (Baikonur).5) Until now, commercial orbital launches in the Northern latitudes were reportedly conducted only by Russia, which used a submarine as a floating platform to launch small satellites from the Barents Sea.6) Outer space and Arctic are moving closer together as Norway and Sweden are about to commence small satellite launches from spaceports located in the High North. Expansion of spaceports in Norway (Andøya) and Sweden (Kiruna) will soon enable commercial small satellite launches from locations in Northern Europe. Norway and Sweden are also competing with other European states which are entering the small satellite launch market such as Portugal in Azores7) and UK.8)

Development of space infrastructure and satellite-based services is generally positive for the sustainable development of the Arctic as it contributes to resolving a major problem of connectivity in the Arctic, improve global and regional weather and climate monitoring,9) protecting the environment and detecting illegal activities at sea.10) The operation of autonomous launch facilities is promising good business for Norway and Sweden, as they will attract commercial customers from Europe and around the world. At the same time, the development of the small satellites market raises serious sustainability concerns which need to be addressed through effective national measures and, importantly, by international cooperation.11)

This article begins with exploring the importance of space infrastructure for the sustainable development of the Arctic region, using the small satellite spaceport development projects in Norway and Sweden as case studies. It continues with discussing legal and regulatory issues and challenges pertaining to these developments, including the problem of space debris, and highlights several societal and environmental problems arising from spaceport expansion projects in the Arctic conditions. It concludes with some reflections on international cooperation and points out that the Arctic Council should play a more active role in this cooperation.

Space infrastructure and its critical importance the Arctic

In the Arctic, with its limited terrestrial communications infrastructure, satellite-based services may improve connectivity with a relatively small amount of infrastructure and without harming the environment.12) Small satellites can also resolve one of the most persistent and significant problems of the Arctic – absence of broadband communication for mobile and remote locations in the Arctic.13) The problem is that existing broadband satellite performance gradually deteriorates from 72 degrees north, and from 75 degrees north, coverage is highly unstable and depends on the good weather and little waive activity.14) Satellites enable safe navigation, sustainable management of resources, pollution preparedness, weather observations and monitoring of ships.15) The need for satellite-based infrastructures becomes even more pressing due to the steadily increasing use of the Arctic Ocean for navigation, fisheries and other sea-based activities.

However, satellites are not the only components of a space infrastructure. Space infrastructure is defined more broadly as a “sociotechnical system whose main functional component is located beyond the arbitrary line separating the Earth’s atmosphere from outer space.” 16) In addition to orbits and orbiting assets (e.g. satellites), space infrastructure also includes communication links and Earth-based components such as ground stations, launch pads, and launch vehicles. Space infrastructure located in the Northern latitudes is particularly well suited to the launch of sounding rockets for space weather research, earth observation and for retrieval of data from polar-orbiting satellites. At the same time, space infrastructure is by its nature international, as one single State seldom has all necessary space- and ground components within its own territory; States have to rely on cooperation with other States to make the full use of space-based services.

As only a few countries in the world operate their own launch facilities,17) spaceports are a highly-demanded component of space infrastructure. For polar orbiting satellites, it is better to use a launch site with open water towards either the south or the north,18) making coastal locations in the North attractive for such developments.

Andøya spaceport (Norway)

Norway has a long tradition of space research and a well-established space sector, which spans from space technologies and space research to satellite data retrieval.19) Management of the vast maritime areas of Norway “requires extensive use of modern and adapted technology, as in an extensive use of space technology”.20) The high latitudes ensure better coverage from polar orbiting satellites in the northernmost part of the Norwegian area than any other global area with population and high activity.21)

Norway’s ground space infrastructure for space research and retrieval of satellite data is located in the High North and on Queen Maud Land in Antarctica. The world’s largest station for satellites in polar orbits is located on Svalbard due to its unique location for reading data from polar-orbiting satellites.22) This has strengthened Norway’s contribution as an important cooperation partner for countries and space agencies all over the world.

Norway also has its own small and micro satellites in near-Earth orbits. Recently, NorSat-3 was launched from French Guiana to contribute to Norway’s constellation of satellites for monitoring maritime traffic.23) In 2021, Norwegian government decided to provide budgetary financial support to Andøya Spaceport located at the coast in the Northern Norway to establish a launch base for small satellites.24) Until now, Andøya has been used for space research, including aurora and solar research, and for launches of sounding rockets and suborbital balloons.

Andøya Space has already entered into long-term agreements with satellite launch companies Isar Aerospace and Rocket Factory Augsburg (Germany). According to these agreements, Andøya Space will deliver the services for the launch infrastructure, while the companies will offer launches for international customers. The first satellite launch is planned for the third quarter of 2022.25)

Esrange spaceport (Kiruna in Sweden)

The European Space and Sounding Rocket Range (Esrange) in Kiruna is over 55 years old and has been actively used by the international scientific community for various studies, including measurements of the geomagnetic field and aurora borealis studies.26) Esrange also accommodates one of the world’s largest civilian satellite ground stations and acts as a hub in the satellite station network.

Esrange is located in the very north of Sweden, above the Arctic Circle (68°N, 21°E) and has good transport access by air, road and rail, while also being surrounded by vast, unpopulated impact and recovery areas. The space center has been in operation since 1966 and has generally launched sounding rockets for microgravity and atmospheric research as well as high altitude balloons for astronomy, atmospheric research and drop tests of space and aerial vehicles.

In October 2020, the Swedish government announced a decision to establish capability to launch small satellites from Esrange. First launches are planned for 2022.27)

Legal and regulatory framework for sustainable space infrastructure

UN Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities28) define the long-term sustainability of outer space activities as “the ability to maintain the conduct of space activities indefinitely into the future in a manner that realizes the objectives of equitable access to the benefits of the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, in order to meet the needs of the present generations while preserving the outer space environment for future generations”.29) Sustainable use and protection of space infrastructures is an obvious prerequisite for the ability to maintain the conduct of space activities.

Space infrastructure is critically important for society and at the same time vulnerable to disruption. Space infrastructure serves not only economy but also society, including its contribution to systems who disruption or destruction would generate significant economic damage, casualties, and loss of confidence.30) As J. Pelton (2015) points out, “[s]pace systems have become so vital, that if we were suddenly denied access to our space-based infrastructure for weather forecasting and warning, for space-based navigation and timing, for civil and military communications, and for remote sensing and surveillance from space, we would be in danger”.31) This applies also to space infrastructures supporting the Arctic region, with its increasingly challenging security framework.32)

Space infrastructure is included in the definition of a critical infrastructure in Norway and other countries.33) A serious implication of a disruption of a critical infrastructure is that it causes cascading effects leading to cascading disasters.34) Addressing interdependencies of critical infrastructure is a key feature of the critical infrastructure protection. As pointed out by Georgescu, “resilience is the only consistent answer to the issues of uncertainty and complexity” pertaining to critical infrastructures.35) Coordination of all actors concerned is one of the crucial means to accomplish strong resilience of the space infrastructure against naturally caused disruption (e.g. extreme solar storms) and deliberate disruptions.36)

In addition to solar weather and deliberate actions, growing amounts of space debris also endanger the safe and sustainable operation of satellites already in a short and medium terms. Small and microsatellite constellations in the near-Earth orbits (such as polar orbits) are in this respect very problematic due to the high number of objects in already congested orbits. Already today we should work to prevent a cascading build-up known as the “Kessler syndrome” from occurring, i.e. cascading effect of debris elements colliding with other debris elements, thus creating dense debris rings which would preclude safe launch and operation of spacecraft.37) In the long-term perspective, space debris may compromise interests of future generations in sustainable space-based services, thus conflicting with UN Sustainable Development Goals and Long Term Sustainability Guidelines.

Georgescu includes administrative and legislative frameworks into the space infrastructure components.38) At the international level, such rules must be capable of adequately addressing the cross-border character of space infrastructure where no single state has all its components within its jurisdiction and control and thus may not protect it without cooperating with other states. Existing treaties (notably, the Outer Space Treaty) govern conduct of states in outer space but are not designed to tackle new technologies such as small satellites and do not respond to the contemporary realities and uses of outer space, including its sustainability problems.39) UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) and Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) have adopted international soft-law instruments to combat the problem of space debris.40) However, without a generally accepted international regulatory framework and effective technological capabilities for space debris removal being in place yet, the increasing number of satellites will likely result in crowded and unsafe orbits.

Space infrastructure ensures services of critical and irreplaceable importance for the Arctic communities. It is imperative for Arctic states, civil society and economic actors to become actively involved in the cooperation and the law-making to ensure sustainability of space infrastructure. At the same time, instruments adopted by the UN (including COPUOS) and other international bodies should seek to connect more strongly the sustainability issues of outer space governance with the Arctic dimension.

The expansion of space activities in Norway and Sweden are accompanied by reforms of their national space laws.41) At the national level, effective laws and regulations are also crucial to govern activities of private actors (companies) in outer space and on Earth, including through licenses with conditions on such companies to ensure that increasing commercial space activities do not result in non-sustainable outcomes.

Who bears societal and environmental costs of space activities in the Arctic?

While being indispensable for sustainable development, space activities also raise serious concerns pertaining to pollution of the environment on Earth.42) and environmental justice.43) Scientific research shows that launches of space rockets may produce harmful effects on the atmosphere, terrestrial and marine environment. The Arctic environment is particularly fragile and any new industrial activities must be carefully assessed in terms of their environmental impact. However, studies examining the environmental impact of space activities in the Arctic are scarce. The existing international environmental legal framework also does not specifically address pollution caused by spaceflight, and it is highly questionable whether generally applicable environmental rules are effective enough to prevent pollution of the Arctic areas caused by space launches, including maritime areas.44) Remoteness of industrial activities from populated areas or areas actively used for recreation is all too often considered a synonym with environmental feasibility of such activities.

The operation of the established economic activities are also likely to suffer from the commencement of orbital launch activities. The fisheries industry is the case in point for Andøya, because maritime areas used for fisheries must be closed for the time necessary for safe conduct of testing, exercise and launch activities at Andøya. Fishers are also worried that increasing use of maritime areas of Andøya for marine exercises and use of electronic equipment may scare the fish away.45)

In addition to wildlife, biodiversity and ecology of the areas surrounding Andøya46) and Esrange,47) other interests of non-economic importance may be put at risk when launch operations commence. Cultural heritage and touristic sites in the Andøya region may become less accessible. The Indigenous population of this Arctic region – Sami people populating Finland, Sweden, Norway and Russia – may once again have their traditional ways of living disturbed and restricted in the way potentially incompatible with international law. Reportedly, reindeer herding activities in areas around Esrange are already suffering, and will probably face further disturbances due to the noise caused by launches into orbit and related activities.48)

It is important to ensure that the local environment and inhabitants, including Indigenous communities, do not end up paying a high price for space ambitions of a few commercial actors who do not have any real cultural or emotional connection to the North and do not share the same values with the local and Indigenous populations. As the planned developments are also likely to bring about significant positive economic and societal results at the local and regional level, it is necessary to find balanced and feasible solutions, which would accommodate interests of all concerned parties. States providing launching capacity should play the main role in seeking such solutions, but the international nature of the space sector means that purely unilateral solutions will not be sufficient to resolve these issues.

Cooperation is the key to sustainable solutions

The sustainable operation and use of space infrastructure is a prerequisite to ensure a sustainable Arctic; however, long-term sustainability of outer space is facing significant and complex issues, including the problem of space debris. As ‘gate-keepers’ to space, Norway and Sweden will play a particularly significant role in ensuring sustainability of space infrastructure. However, issues of space governance transcend national borders, and may not be adequately addressed by any single State alone. Space infrastructure is based on systems of international and global character, and regulatory tools and measures at the national level are therefore limited and should be developed through international cooperation.49) As noted by Norway in its speech at “Space agencies in support of Space2030” (COPUOS), «the 2030-goals only can be achieved by global cooperation and partnerships. In this framework, the joint effort of the international space communities is of the essence”, including the importance of international organizations and networks.50)

Considering the particular importance of critical space infrastructures for the Arctic region and the communities of the High North, it is pertinent to highlight more clearly the Arctic dimension in the relevant global and regional cooperation forums on outer space. The relevance of the Arctic dimension in outer space sector has already been noted by UN,51) Norway and Finland also emphasized the Arctic (Polar) dimension in outer space52) However, presently, the Arctic dimension in outer space context still lacks substantive contents and needs to be developed and detailed out at the policy and regulatory levels.

The role of the Arctic Council

The Arctic Council’s expertise in matters related to the environmental protection and governance of the Arctic is valuable and also extends to telecommunications problems in the region. In its report (2017), Arctic Council’s Task Force on Telecommunications Infrastructure in the Arctic (TFTIA) revealed that there are “serious limitations to the connectivity provided by geostationary satellites in the northernmost parts of the Arctic” but “the future for satellite-based connectivity in the Arctic looks potentially positive, as there are several companies seeking to deploy new constellations, including constellations of satellites that will provide expanded or nearly-complete coverage in the Arctic.”53) TFTIA recommended, among other, that the Arctic Council should continue a strong and enduring focus on telecommunications infrastructure and services.54)

In 2017, the eight member States of the Arctic Council also established the Task Force on Improved Connectivity in the Arctic (TFICA). TFICA was advised to work closely with the industry and the Arctic Economic Council to encourage the inclusion of improved connectivity in the Arctic in the Mandate of the Arctic Council 2017 Ministerial meeting.55) The early discussions identified on-going projects, which aimed to provide full satellite coverage of the Arctic. TFICA pointed out that there is need for cooperation on law and regulation, harmonization and further development of standards. Conclusions from the TFICA working paper also highlighted the need for cooperation of different public and commercial actors to facilitate development and application of technologies.

COPUOS recognized Arctic Council’s contribution to space-related issues, in the context of climate change issues.56) However, Arctic Council’s expertise remains under-used by international and regional organisations working on outer space issues and law-making. In the future, it is important to strengthen the dialogue between the Arctic Council and international outer space forums such as COPUOS, European Space Agency (ESA) and national space agencies.

Dr. Alla Pozdnakova is Professor at the Scandinavian Institute of Maritime Law, University of Oslo Law Faculty. Her fields of research include public international law, law of the sea, environmental law, Arctic, comparative law and outer space law. She is a member of the Northern Areas Committee of the University of Oslo. She is also a member of the Space Law committee tasked by the Norwegian Government with the preparation of a draft proposal for the new Norwegian Outer Space Act.

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